Aug 11, 2020

Nature of Indian economy in first three five years plan.

Nature of Indian economy in first three five years plan.
Indian-economy-first-three-five-years-plan.

learning objectives.

After reading this answer we will be able to know about:

The economic growth of India during the first three five year plans.
Agricultural Development, initiative taken for the development of irrigation.
The role of monsoon for the development of the economy.
The role of IITs,UGC for the development of Secondary Education.
Second plan focused on the public sector that is industrialization and especially heavy industry.

Introduction.

Before independence Indian economy was an unplanned economy. India's national income grew at a paltry rate. Agriculture ,the largest sector of Indian economy, was in a state of ruin. The greatest damage, of course, was done to Indian industry. India, the world largest exporter of textile in the pre British Era became a major Importer of textile during this time. The situation regarding health ,education and social indicators was also very poor.

From 1947 to onwards, the Indian economy was premised on the concept of planning. This was carried through a five year plan. important measures were taken in the first three five years plan for the development of agriculture, people’s standard of living ,industry, health education and other social indicators..

On the path of a planned economy.

A planned economy is a type of economic system where investment, production and the allocation of capital goods take place according to economic wide economic plans and production plans.

India adopted the planned economy from the very first of the five year plans and adopted the following agenda.

Multipronged inward oriented strategy of economic development based on self- reliance to be adopted.
Rapid industrialization based on import substitution including capital goods Industries.
Prevention of imperialist or foreign capital domination.
Land reforms involving abolition of zamindari, tenancy reforms, introduction of cooperative, especially service Cooperative and credit etc.
growth to be attempted along with equity.
The state plays a central role in promoting economic development including direct state participation in the production process.

Agrarian sector

On the agrarian front, the comprehensive land reform measures initiated soon after independence, the setting up a massive network for agricultural extension and community development work at the village level ,the large infrastructural investment in irrigation, power, agricultural research etc had created a condition for considering agricultural growth during this period.
During the three plans, India's agriculture grew at an annual rate of over 3%, a growth rate 7.4% times higher than that achieved during the last half century or so of the colonial period.
Focus on irrigation projects and construction of Mettur Dam ,Hirakud Dam and Bhakra dam. Soil conservation was given importance. Good monsoon played Vital role for agricultural development.

Industry

Industry during the first three plans, grew even more rapidly than agriculture at a compound growth rate of 7.1 % per annum between 1951 and 1965.
The industrial growth was based on Rapid import substitution initial of consumer goods and particularly since the second plan of capital goods and intermediate goods.
The emphasis on the letter since the second plan was reflected in the fact that 70% of plan expenditure on industry went to metal, machinery and chemical industries in the second plan and 80% in the third plan.
Consequently the three fold increase in aggregate index of Industrial Production between 1951 and 1969 was the result of a 70% increase in consumer goods industries ,a quadrupling of intermediate goods production and a 10 fold increase in the output of capital goods.

Infrastructure and other social needs.

Apart from industry and Agriculture, the early planners gave utmost priority to the development of infrastructure, including education and health, areas greatly neglected in the Colonial past.

The average actual plan expenditure during each of the first three plans on transport and communication was about 13 billion, accounting for an average of about 26% of the total plan expenditure in each plan. The corresponding figures for social or community service and power 9.4 billion and 19.9% and 6.16 billion and 10.6% respectively.

Over time plan investment in these areas (and in irrigation) was to prove critical both in stepping off private investment and improving its productivity

In 1965-66 as compared to 1950-51 installed capacity of Electricity was 4.5 times higher, number of towns and villages electrified was 14 times higher, Hospital beds 2.5 times higher ,enrollment in school was little less than three times higher and very importantly admission capacity in technical education that is Engineering and Technology at the degree and diploma level was the higher by 6 and 8.5 times respectively.

Science and Technology

Jawaharlal Nehru and yearly Indian planners were acutely aware of India's backwardness in Science and Technology and therefore massive effort to overcome this shortcoming. Nehru's temples of modern India consisted not only of Steel and power plants, irrigation Dam etc but also included Institution of Higher Learning, particularly in the scientific field.
During the first plan itself, high power National laboratories and institutions were set up.
National expenditure on scientific research and development kept growing rapidly with plan.
Great emphasis laid on human resource development in the sphere of Science and Technology.

Conclusion.

At independence, India inherited an economy that had suffered over 200 years of Colonial rule. In the last four decades before independence India's national income Grew at a slower rate, per capita income declined ,agricultural production failed, and industrial growth stagnated. The nehruvian program of development focused on a police of self Reliance, rapidly industrialisation based on import substitution, resistance of foreign capital and land reforms. In the early decade of planning national income grew rapidly at an average of4% per annum, agriculture gave at 3% per annum and industries at 7.1 % per annum.

Jul 26, 2020

SOURCES OF ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY

Sources of ancient Indian history.

This article deals with the various sources of ancient Indian history such as archaeological, literary and foreign accounts. It gives vital information regarding the social, political and economic life of people in ancient times.

The study of ancient Indian history is very significant due to several reasons. It tells us about how,when and where people developed the earliest culture in our country. It also tells us our ancestors started agriculture and led a settled life.

By studying these sources we came to know about how they adopted farming, spinning metalworking, weaving and so on. How they clear forest ,founded villages, cities and finally large kingdoms.

The main purpose of history is to throw light on the past and this could be achieved through the discovery and study of historical sources.

Topic to be covered.

Sources of ancient Indian History.

1-Archaeological sources

A-Excavation

B-Exploration

C-Epigraphy

D-Numismatics

2-Literary Sources

Primary literary sources

Secondary literary Sources

Secular literature

Religious literature

Veda literature

Smriti literature

Sutra literature

Upaveda

Epics

Purans

Buddhist literature

jain literature

Sinhal literature

Scientfic Literature

Ancient astrology and astronomy

Mathematics

Physics

Chemistry

Sangam literature

3.Foreign Accounts

A-Greek

B-Chinese

C-Arab

Classification of sources.

According to historians like RC Majumdar Indians were adverse to writing history and its main reason is lack of historical data. Still archaeologists and Scholars rely on different sources of Indian history in order to understand the life on Indian people.

The sources of ancient Indian history can be studied under the following three categories.

Archaeological
Literary
Foreign account
Archaeological sources

Archaeological sources.

The study of materials, remains of past ,human life and activities is called archaeology. These include sculpture ,monuments, coins and other rafts. It can be classified under the following categories.

Excavation
Exploration
Numismatics
Epigraphy

Excavation.

Excavation Can be horizontal(where the digging involves a large surface area) or vertical (where the digging involves) small surface area.

Excavation is done by careful recording,mapping ,photography, labelling and preservation of artefacts. Excavation Is very important because excavation is destructive ,otherwise no one except the excavator will know what was discovered at the site.

Exploration.

Exploration is another important technique through which historians explore the sites carefully.

Sites can be explored by careful examining what lies on the surface or they can be excavated i.e dug. Sites are excavated to uncover their stratigraphic sequence.

Numismatics(study of coins):

Numismatics are important to determine chronology, property ,territorial extent ,religion and relation with neighbouring countries and dynasties.

Coin alone tells us the history of sakas,kushans,scythians,parthians and Bactrian Greeks. Coins are an index of the economic condition of a country. Through coins Gupta Kings prove their prosperity and high artistic sense.

Panch mark coin is the earliest coin of India.(about 4th century BC). It is silver or copper pieces-square or rectangular in shape

From the 2nd century BC Greek influenced the style of Indian coinage. From the 1st century A.D. Kushan Kings issued gold and copper coins with obverse had the figure that King offered a sacrifice ,reverse had deities of all religions of the time.

In the 4 century A.D Gupta Kings issued coins of an improved standard-contained legend in Sanskrit. coins give name of the kings who used them and show them in various posters eg. Samudragupta sitting on a couch and playing a lyre or performing horse sacrifice.

In 6th century AD with the Humans invasion there was marked debasement of coinage. In 10 the century A.D disbursement overcome when elegant coins were issued by the Sahi kings of Gandhara.this kind of coinage also immitiate by Muslim conquerors.

Epigraphy.
Inscription

The study of inscription is called epigraphy. and the study of old writing used in inscription and other old records is called palaeography. Inscriptions were carved on seals,rocks ,stone pillars, copper plates and temple walls and bricks or images. They give information about the religious practices, beliefs and rituals of a particular civilization.They also give information about administration,code of law, regulation, public accounts, treasure list, it's commercial agreement, honor and privileges and historical record,tomb etc.

The manuscripts are written on soft surfaces like birch bark, Palm leaf and paper etc. They became fraggle in a course of time and were frequently required to be copied and at the time of copying some irrelevant additions were made and some errors occurred therefore they are not considered as a reliable source of information about history.

Types of inscription.

Commercial( seal of Indus valley)

Magical( inscription on the amulets)

Eulogistic

Religious and administrative

Votive

Literary

Commemorative

Inscription in ancient India.

The epigraphic studies started in the late 18th century in India.

The Harappan seals depict the earliest system of writings however they have not been deciphered.

The Ashokan inscriptions are claimed to be the earliest form of system of writing. Ashoka's inscriptions are found written in four scripts Greek, Aramaic,Kharoshthi and Brahmi.

Kharosthi script was used in the Pakistan region which is written from right to left and evolved on the alphabet system of the Indian languages.

Brahmi script was used for the rest of the Empire. Brahmi script was adopted by the successor of Ashoka.

Greek and Aramaic script inscription bilingual of Ashoka was found at kandhar.

The inscription of Ashoka had been recorded in different years of his Reign and are known as edits because there in the form of Kings order or desire.

Junagarh Rock inscription of Rudra Daman was written in the mid of 2nd century. It was an early example of an inscription written in Sanskrit. However Sanskriti became prominent during the Gupta period.

The Aihole inscription of Chalukya King pulakeshin 2 describes adynastic genealogy and achievements.

The Gwalior inscription of bhauja also gives a full account of his predecessors and their achievement.

pillar in inscription of Allahabad describe the achievements of Samudragupta. It is also known as the Prayag inscription written by Harisena.

Inscriptions provide us valuable evidence of the political, social and economic condition for the people and the country which they belong to.

Manuscript

Literary sources

Literary sources are obtained from the various texts that are composed in ancient India,it includes literature of vedic Sanskrit ,pali,prakrit and other liertaure along with other foreign accounts.the literary sources can be categorizedinto primary and secondary sources as well as religious and secular source.

Primary sources

primry sources are the original evidence of certain events ,object,person or works. They enable student and researchers to get as close as possible to the actual events.The information in primary sources has not been analyesd,summerised or interpreted,which gives you the opportunity to do so yourself.

Secondary Sources

A secondary source interprets,analyse and /or explains primary sources.

Ex-Literature review,Books ,documenataries etc.

Secular literature

secular literature in the text that did not focus on religion: epics ,stories, poems, plays,etc fall under this category.The epics Mahabharata and Ramayana are secular literature.

Secular text of Ancient India.

Text. Author

Geography Ptolemy

Historica Herodotus

Indica Megasthenes

Fo-kyo-ki Fa-Hein

Si-yu-ki- Hiuen Tsang

HammerMahakavya Nayachandra suri

Brihat Katha Kosh Harisena

Mitaksara Vijnanesvara

Hitopodesha Narayan Pandit

Charaka Samhita Charaka

Panchasiddhantika Varahamihira

Prahlada charita Hema Saraswati

Nighantu Dhanvantari

Prithviraj Vijaya Ayanaka

Nava sashanka charita Padma gupta

Kumar pal charita Jayapal

Harsha charita- Banabhatta

Gaurvaho Vakpati

Vikramakadevcharita Bilhana

Abhijnasakuntalam Kalidas

Malavikagnimitram- Kalidas

Priyadarshini/Ratnabali Harshavardhana

Mudraraksha- Vishakhadatta

Asthadhayayi- Panini

Prithviraj Raso Chand Bardai

Mrchhakatika- Sudraka

Dashakumaracharita Dandin

Ramcharita- Sandhyakar Nandi

Arthashastra Kautilya

Kathasaritsagara Kshemendra

Religious literature.

Most of the Literature that can be used as a source of ancient Indian history are Hindu, Buddhist or Jain religious literature. Religious literature Included the Vedas,vedangas,the Upanishadas and Buddhist text like various jatakas.

Vedas

Vedas are the oldest form of Sanskrit literature and religious text on Hinduism.It is also called Shruti literature. They are divided into four Samhitas.

Rig Veda- it is an ancient Indian collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns

Sam Vedaa - they are Vedas of melodies and chants.

yajur Veda - it is primarily Vedas of a prose mantra for worship rituals

Atharva Veda- it is knowledge about procedure about everyday life.

Vedic literature is classified into four main text types.

Samhitas (Mantra,benediction)

Aranayaka(text on rituals,ceremonies and sacrifice)

Brahmana(commentaries on rituals ceremonies)

Upanishads(text discussing meditation, philosophy and spiritual knowledge)

Smriti literature

Smrithis sacred literature based on human memory as a distinct form of Vedas ,which are considered to be Shruti or the product of divine relation. Smriti literature elaborates, interprets and qualifies Vedic thought but being derivative,is considered less authoritative than the vedic Shruti .

Sutra literature

After Vedic literature sutras are most prominent source of information about ancient history they known as Sutra because they are written in the form of Sutra.Sutras are considered as a divine revelation

It is divided into three categories

Srauta Sutra deals with the rituals of great sacrifice of agni,Soma and animals. Attached to it is the sulva sutras, the oldest books on Indian geometry containing instruction for measurement and construction of the complex Vedic fire altars.
Grihya Sutra deals with domestic ceremonies and sacrifices to be performed by the house holder.
Dharmasutra deals with the laws ,manners and Customs of people in general constitutes the foundation of the dharmashastra.

Dharma Shastra.

Dharmashastra is a Sanskrit test and honoured in Hindu religion. It is composed in poetic verses and is part of Smriti.

Buddhist literature.

Initially passed through oral tradition by monks which were later written in the form of manuscripts and translated into other languages as Buddhism spread.

Tripitak (three basket ):

it can be categorised as

Vinayapitaka(book of discipline)-It is concerned with monastic discipline.There are six Vinayak that survive,they included Theravada,Mulasarvastivada,Dharmagupta,Mahasanghika,Sarvastivada,Mahisarika.
Sutta pitaka (It is sutra related to Budhha and his close companions)-It contains over 10000 sutras related to Budhha and his companions.It has five sections.These are Digha Nikaya,Majjhima Nikaya,Samyutta Nikaya,Angutara Nikaya and Khuddaka Nikaya.
Abhidhamma pitaka( it is a philosophy and doctrine of Buddhism)

Jatakas -jatakas are folklore literature also called jatakamala in Sanskrit.it comprises 547 poems.
Milinda panho( questions of Milinda)- it is a dialogue between meander and Buddhist monk Nagasena.
Mahavamsam( great Chronicle)- it is a Pali Epic poem. It is the world's longest unbroken historical account.
Mahavastu (Great event )-it deals with the miracles and early lives of Buddha.
Buddha Charitra- it deals with Buddha's life.

Jain literature

They are commentaries of various Jain aesthetics divided into Digambar literature and Svetambara literature. Agmas are Join texs based on discourses of the Tirthankar. Jain literature Can be divided into four categories.

Davannayoga-(philosophical doctrine)
Ganitanuyog-(it deals with mathematics, Geography astronomy etc)
Charankanauyog-( deals with the principles of conduct and observance)
Dharmakathanauyog-( it contains stories, informations, tables arts,literature, history etc)

Important Jain work Bhagwati Sutra and prabandha Chintamani of marutunga.

Sinhala literature

Sinhala literature includes literary sources written in Sri Lanka. Most famous are the Dipavamsa and mahavamsa.it is believed that Dipavamsa Must had been written in fourth century and mahavamsa in 5th century BC. They have provided a lot of valuable information about the advent of Buddhism to Sri Lanka from India. It also contains information about King Ashoka that he killed his 99 brothers before ascending the throne.

Scientific literature

Scientific literature has also contributed in knowing about our Ancient History. it includes various subjects such as astrology,mathematics,physics etc.

Ancient astrology and astronomy.

Ancient Indian astrology was highly influenced by Greek astrology Brahamihira ,the famous astronomer of Ancient India had respectfully mentioned ' Yavanacharyas' contribution made in astrology. In ancient India there were 5 astrological treatise-paitamaha,Vasistha,Surya,Paulista,and Romak Siddhanta. Varahamihira was influenced by hellenistic astrology(Romaka and Paulista)Brihat Samhita mention'Yavana' as father of astrology.

Mathematics.

The first Indian text explicitly dealing with mathematics are the shulva sutras during Sutra period 600 to 400 BC. The Vedic Aryans were aware about the knowledge of the decimal system but the evidence of use of this system with the numerical figure has been found in panduscript (3rd and 4th century BC).

Baudhayana examples of geometric knowledge or Rekha ganita are to be found in the shulva sutra of Baudhayana (800BC)and Apastamba (600BC) which describe techniques for the construction of ritual altars during Vedic period. This theory of mathematics is parallel to Pythagoras and euclidean geometry. Baudhayana was the founder of the value of √2.

Aryabhatta.

Aryabhatta in his book stated that Earth is round and rotates in its own axis. He discovered algebra. He has given the true value of π that is 3.1416 which is authentic today. His most important contribution was finding the value of sin functioning between 0 to 90° angles and area of triangle. The Jyotish path of Aryabhattaya also deals with astronomical definition ,method of determining the true position of planets ,movement of sun and moon.

Brahmagupta. (7th century)

Brahmagupta had knowledge about the solution of a positive and a negative numerals,square root and cube root.he also propounded the concept of negative number and the area of cyclic quadrilateral. He is known as the father of modern algebra.Mahaveer and Bhaskar were some of the great mathematicians who came after Aryabhatta.

Bhaskar 1

He was contemporary of brahmagupta. He expanded on the trigonometric equation provided by Aryabhatta and like Aryabhatta he correctly assessed pi( π)as an irrational number. His most famous contribution was his formula for calculating the sine function which was inaccurate. He wrote a contemporary on 'Aryabhattayam' named Aryabhattaya Bhashya.

Bhaskar 2

His most famous work is Siddhanta Shiromani. It is divided into four parts-Lilavati,Bijaganit Grihaganita,Goladhyaya. The idea of perpetual motion is the most important portion of Siddhanta Shiromani.He has Explained the gravitational theory in Lilavati .Sheikh Faizi (1857AD )translated Lilavati into Persian during Mughal period.

Physics and Chemistry

The theory of atomic structure is the most important theory of Physical Science. The evidence of this could be seen since the Buddha's age. The contemporary of Buddha 'Pakudhakachchayan' described the four eternal elements earth,water,fire and air. Akash was added as the fifth element by jains.

In ancient India chemistry evolved as an auxiliary branch of Medical Science. Nagarjuna was a great scholar of chemistry.

Medical science.

The Atharvaveda mentions 2 types of medical technique i- skin technique or magical healing technique ii-medicine technique.

In the 6th century BC( contemporary of Buddha) two main universities were Takshila and Varanasi. Atreya was the main teacher of Medical Science in Takshila. Jeevan was the court physician of a Bimbisara. He was a student of the Taxila and traveled to Ujjain (Avanti)and Kampilya.

Sushruta and Charak were the physicians in ancient times. Charak propounded the law of uniformity of nature .His work is charak Samhita based on Atreya's medical principles. He propounded the philosophy of a professional ethics about medical practitioners which resembles the hypocrites law of Medical Science and is a moral guideline. He discovers surgery and many surgical equipment. Amravati was the major Centre for learning Ayurvedic science in the 2nd century BC.

Indian Medical System

Indian Medical Science was based on three basic principles-Kapha(phlegm)pitta(bile), vayu(air). Their balance makes a man healthier.Indian Medical Science was very much developed during ancient times and they had knowledge about Chaulmoogra,a medicine used in leprosy.They had knowledge about giving of birth, osteology, ophthalmology, toxicology and rejuvenative medicines.

Some important work on science in ancient India

Name of author. Text

Baudhayana. Sulva sutra

Aryabhatta. Aryabhatiya

Varahamihira. Brihat Samhita

Brahma Gupta. Brahma Bhuta Siddhant

Sushruta. Sushruta Samhita

Patanjali. Yoga Sutras

Hasti Ayurveda. Palkapya

Upavedas

We have four vedas or subsidiary vedas brief information about them is given below.

Ayurveda which deals with medicine related with Rig Veda. Dhanurveda which deals with Art or Warfare related to Samvida.Gandharva Veda which deals with art of music related to Yajur Veda which deals with architecture ,related with Arthavaveda.

Epics

Epics are long poems derived from an ancient oral tradition narrating the deeds and adventures of heroic or legendary figures or past history of a nation.

Some of the important epics of India.

Mahabharat - it was written by sage vedvyas. It was based on the struggle between Pandavas and Kauravas in greater India. It is the longest epic of India which has 110000 couplets in 18 sections.
Ramayan - it is a Sanskrit epic about Lord Rama which was written by sage Balmiki.it has 96000 verses.
Panchatantra- it was written by Vishnu Sharma. It is a legendary collection of short stories.

https://draft.blogger.com/blog/post/edit/686649423893710170/4552568049803720815

The Sangam age lasted from 1st century A.D to 3rd Century A.D. The Tamil sangam was an Academy of poets, bards who flourished in different places under the patronage of Tamil Kings. Poems of Sangam literature were composed by Tamil poets. These Poems were later collected into various anthologies.

The sangam literature is one of the main sources used for documenting the ancient history of Southern India. It mentions many kings and princes. It is considered by Tamil people as the golden era of Tamil language and literature. Three main dynasties of the Sangam age who ruled Tamilakam were Pandya,chola and chera the velir. As per tamil sources the father of Tamil literature is Agastya.

First Sangam was held at Madurai which was attended by Gods and legendary sages but no literary work of this Sangam is available.
The second Sangam was held at Kapadapuram but all the literary works perished expectTolkappiyam.
The third Sangam was held at Madurai and was attended by a large number of poets who produced voluminous literature.

Sangam literary works.

Tolkappiyam is written by Tolkappiyar.It is a work on Tamil grammar.

Ettutogai or eight anthologies consists of eight works.

Patty patty or ten idylls consists of ten works.

Pathinenkilkanakku contains 18 works dealing with ethics and morals.

Silappadikaram provides information about sangam polity and society.

Foreign accounts
Herodotus

Other from archaeological and literary sources, foreign writers and travelers left valuable information about ancient India.

Greek

Important people who contributed in this regard are Herodotus,megasthenis and Ptolemy.

Herodotus was dependent on Persian sources for his information about India. in his book The histories written in many volumes describe the Indo Persian relations. A detailed account of invdedetaia of India by Alexander was written by Arrians.

Kings had sent ambassadors to Patliputra. Megasthenis,Deimachus and Dionysius were some of them.

Megasthenis came in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.He had written about Indian society and culture in his book indica.Though the original work has been lost,but it had been frequently quoted in the works of later writers.

A book periplus of earthen sea written by an anonymous Greek author who settled in Egypt.It gives valuable information about the Indian coasts.

In the 2nd century A.D Ptolemy had written Geographia,in which a geographical treatise on India was given by him.

the Greek writing about India ,however, is based on secondary sources. They were ignorant of the language and custom of the country and hence their information is full of errors and contradictions.

Chinese

Many Chinese Monks made long and arduous overland Journeys to India crossing mountains ,plateaus and desert in order to collect authentic manuscripts of Buddhist text, met Indian monks and visited places of Buddhist learning and pilgrimage.

Fa-Hien

His Travels extends from 399 to 414 CE. He visited India during the rule of Chandragupta II (Vikramaditya).His journey is described in his travelogue as the Record of Buddhist kingdoms. He wrote Fo-kyo-ki.

Hiuen-Tsang

He visited India during the reign of Harshvardhan. He attended Buddhist council and wrote si-yu-ki or the record of Western Worlds.

Yijing:

Yijing another 7th century Chinese Traveller lived for 10 years in the monastery of Nalanda. Accounts written by these pilgrims throw light on the history of Buddhism and various other aspects of their time.

Arab

Arab Scholars initially related on Greek works but men like Jaihani,Gardizi and Al Biruni developed their own independent critical point of view. Abu Rohan Or Al Biruni a native of Khwarizm( in modern Turkmenistan)was one of the greatest intellectuals of Early medieval Times. Only 40 out of the 80 books he wrote have survived.

Al Biruni travel to India to satisfy his curiosity about the land and its people and to study their ancient text in the original language, his Tahqiq-i-Hind covers a large number of topics including Indian script,science ,Geography ,astronomy ,astrology philosophy ,literature ,beliefs customs ,religious ,festivals ,rituals, social organisations and laws. Al Biruni helped modern history and identify the initial year of Gupta Era.

The Tahqiq-i-Hind state that the Gupta began 241 years after the beginning of the saka era.The saka era began in 78 CE.Gupta era began 319_320 CE.

Labels: Indian history

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Aug 11, 2020